Free Essays on Are We Alone

The prospects of finding life elsewhere in the Solar System Thirteen thousand years ago, a dazzling meteor flashed into existence in the skies above Antarctica. As it ploughed earthwards, the heat of its fall ripped apart the atoms of the air, leaving behind a brilliant trail that lit up the icy landscape. It would have made a beautiful sight, if anybody had been there to see it. The meteor's surface melted, then vapourised, and as the rocky ball tore towards the ground it slowly shrank. Ordinarily such an object would have been completely destroyed long before making contact with our planet's surface, but this one was not. A small chunk - about two kilograms of it - survived the fall, and lay there, hot and steaming, on the cold Antarctic ice. Most meteorites that are found on Earth are simply interplanetary debris - small pieces of junk left over from the violent formation of our Solar System, four and half billion years ago. But this particular meteorite was special. It had come from Mars, blasted from its home planet fifteen million years ago by a cosmic impact even more spectacular than the one in which it fell to Earth. This potato-shaped lump of rock, codenamed ALH84001 by the scientists who first discovered it, was a messenger from another world. And buried deep within its baked interior lay what may have been humanity's first tantalising glimpse of an alien lifeform. Every few years, the red disc of Mars passes particularly close to the Earth, and human observers are afforded an especially good view of the planet that has fascinated mankind since ancient times. This fortunate configuration of the planets is known to astronomers as a "favourable opposition", and one such event occurred in the year 1877. Among the many observers who turned their telescopes towards the Red Planet in that year was the Italian Giovanni Schiaparelli, who was surprised to see a network of dark, greenish lines criss-crossing the planet's rusty ... Free Essays on Are We Alone Free Essays on Are We Alone The prospects of finding life elsewhere in the Solar System Thirteen thousand years ago, a dazzling meteor flashed into existence in the skies above Antarctica. As it ploughed earthwards, the heat of its fall ripped apart the atoms of the air, leaving behind a brilliant trail that lit up the icy landscape. It would have made a beautiful sight, if anybody had been there to see it. The meteor's surface melted, then vapourised, and as the rocky ball tore towards the ground it slowly shrank. Ordinarily such an object would have been completely destroyed long before making contact with our planet's surface, but this one was not. A small chunk - about two kilograms of it - survived the fall, and lay there, hot and steaming, on the cold Antarctic ice. Most meteorites that are found on Earth are simply interplanetary debris - small pieces of junk left over from the violent formation of our Solar System, four and half billion years ago. But this particular meteorite was special. It had come from Mars, blasted from its home planet fifteen million years ago by a cosmic impact even more spectacular than the one in which it fell to Earth. This potato-shaped lump of rock, codenamed ALH84001 by the scientists who first discovered it, was a messenger from another world. And buried deep within its baked interior lay what may have been humanity's first tantalising glimpse of an alien lifeform. Every few years, the red disc of Mars passes particularly close to the Earth, and human observers are afforded an especially good view of the planet that has fascinated mankind since ancient times. This fortunate configuration of the planets is known to astronomers as a "favourable opposition", and one such event occurred in the year 1877. Among the many observers who turned their telescopes towards the Red Planet in that year was the Italian Giovanni Schiaparelli, who was surprised to see a network of dark, greenish lines criss-crossing the planet's rusty ...

Gustav Kirchhoff and Kirchhoffs Laws for Electrical Circuits

Gustav Kirchhoff and Kirchhoff's Laws for Electrical Circuits Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (March 12, 1824–October 17, 1887) was a German physicist. He is best known for developing Kirchhoff’s laws, which quantify the current and voltage in electrical circuits. In addition to Kirchhoff’s laws, Kirchhoff made a number of other fundamental contributions to physics, including work on spectroscopy and blackbody radiation. Fast Facts: Gustav Kirchhoff Full Name: Gustav Robert KirchhoffOccupation: PhysicistKnown For: Developed Kirchhoffs laws for electrical circuitsBorn: March 12, 1824 in Kà ¶nigsberg, PrussiaDied: October 17, 1887 in Berlin, GermanyParents’ Names: Carl Friedrich Kirchhoff, Juliane Johanna Henriette von WittkeSpouses Names: Clara Richelot (m. 1834-1869), Benovefa Karolina Sopie Luise Brà ¶mmel (m. 1872) Early Years and Education Born in Kà ¶nigsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia), Gustav Kirchhoff was the youngest of three sons. His parents were Carl Friedrich Kirchhoff, a law counselor devoted to the Prussian state, and Juliane Johanna Henriette von Wittke. Kirchhoff’s parents encouraged their children to serve the Prussian state as best as they were able. Kirchoff was an academically strong student, so he planned to become a university professor, which was considered a civil servant role in Prussia at that time. Kirchhoff attended Kneiphofische High School with his brothers and received his diploma in 1842. After graduating high school, Kirchhoff began studying in the Mathematics-Physics department at the Albertus University of Kà ¶nigsberg. There, Kirchhoff attended a mathematics-physics seminar from 1843 to 1846 developed by the mathematicians Franz Neumann and Carl Jacobi. Neumann in particular had a profound impact on Kirchhoff, and encouraged him to pursue mathematical physics – a field which focuses on developing mathematical methods for problems in physics. While studying with Neumann, Kirchhoff published his first paper in 1845 at age 21. This paper contained the two Kirchhoff’s laws, which allow for the calculation of the current and voltage in electrical circuits. Kirchhoff's Laws Kirchhoff’s laws for current and voltage are at the foundation of analyzing electrical circuits, allowing for the quantification of current and voltage within the circuit. Kirchhoff derived these laws by generalizing the results of Ohm’s law, which states that the current between two points is directly proportional to the voltage between those points and inversely proportional to the resistance. Kirchhoff’s first law says that at a given junction in a circuit, the current going into the junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction. Kirchhoff’s second law says that if there is a closed loop in a circuit, the sum of the voltage differences within the loop equals zero. Through his collaboration with Bunsen, Kirchhoff developed three Kirchhoff’s laws for spectroscopy: Incandescent solids, liquids, or dense gases – which light up after they are heated – emit a continuous spectrum of light: they emit light at all wavelengths.A hot, low-density gas produces an emission-line spectrum: the gas emits light at specific, discrete wavelengths, which can be seen as bright lines in an otherwise dark spectrum.A continuous spectrum traversing through a cooler, low-density gas produces an absorption-line spectrum: the gas absorbs light at specific, discrete wavelengths, which can be seen as dark lines in an otherwise continuous spectrum. Because atoms and molecules produce their own unique spectra, these laws allow for the identification of atoms and molecules found in the object being studied. Kirchhoff also performed important work in thermal radiation, and proposed Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation in 1859. This law states that the emissivity (ability to emit energy as radiation) and absorbance (ability to absorb radiation) of an object or surface are equal at any wavelength and temperature, if the object or surface is at static thermal equilibrium. While studying thermal radiation, Kirchhoff also coined the term â€Å"black body† to describe a hypothetical object which absorbed all incoming light and thus emitted all of that light when it was maintained at a constant temperature to establish thermal equilibrium. In 1900, the physicist Max Planck would hypothesize that these black bodies absorbed and emitted energy in certain values called â€Å"quanta.† This discovery would serve as one of the key insights for quantum mechanics. Academic Career In 1847, Kirchhoff graduated from Kà ¶nigsberg University, and became an unpaid lecturer at Berlin University in Germany in 1848. In 1850, he became an associate professor at Breslau University and in 1854 a professor of physics at Heidelberg University. At Breslau, Kirchhoff met the German chemist Robert Bunsen, after whom the Bunsen burner was named, and it was Bunsen who arranged for Kirchhoff to come to Heidelberg University. In the 1860s, Kirchhoff and Bunsen showed that each element could be identified with a unique spectral pattern, establishing that spectroscopy could be used to experimentally analyze the elements. The pair would discover the elements cesium and rubidium while investigating the elements in the sun using spectroscopy. In addition to his work in spectroscopy, Kirchhoff would also study blackbody radiation, coining the term in 1862. His work is considered fundamental to the development of quantum mechanics. In 1875, Kirchhoff became the chair of mathematical physics at Berlin. He later retired in 1886. Later Life and Legacy Kirchhoff died on October 17, 1887 in Berlin, Germany at the age of 63. He is remembered for his contributions to the field of physics as well as his influential teaching career. His Kirchhoffs laws for electrical circuits are now taught as part of introductory physics courses on electromagnetism. Sources Hockey, Thomas A., editor. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer, 2014.Inan, Aziz S. â€Å"What did Gustav Robert Kirchhoff Stumble Upon 150 Years Ago?† Proceedings of 2010 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, pp. 73–76.â€Å"Kirchhoff’s Laws.† Cornell University, http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro201/kirchhoff.htm.Kurrer, Karl-Eugen. The History of the Theory of Structures: from Arch Analysis to Computational Mechanics. Ernst Sohn, 2008.â€Å"Gustav Robert Kirchhoff.† Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics, and You, 2015, https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/kirchhoff.html.O’Connor, J. J., and Robertson, E. F. â€Å"Gustav Robert Kirchhoff.† University of St. Andrews, Scotland, 2002.Palma, Christopher. â€Å"Kirchoff’s Laws and Spectroscopy.† The Pennsylvania State University, https://www.e-education.psu.edu/astro801/content/l3_p6.html.